Chapter 20: Reflection

In this chapter I learned about attitudes, and they are beliefs and feelings about objects, people, and events that can affect how people behave in certain situations.  There is a process known as cognitive evaluation, which  also plays a role in the development of attitudes and refers to  evaluate evidence and form beliefs on the basic of their evaluations. Also there is something called Prejudice is a generalized attitude toward a specific group of people, and it literally means prejudgment. People who are prejudiced judge people on the basis of their group members rather than as individuals. Later I learned about a scapegoat; which is an individual or group that is blamed for problems of others.

The term scapegoating refers to aggression toward people  which are identified as the target. Attraction is a kind of attitude, an attitude of liking. Attraction to  another person often leads to friendship or live. Physical appearance tends to influence our choice of friends and patterns.  According to the matching hypothesis, people tend to choose as friends and partners those who are similar to themselves in attractiveness.  Friends are people for whom one has affection, respect, and trust. Most people value friends because of the reward that friendship offers. 

This was a very interesting chapter, since I got the opportunity to learn about all this different types of attitudes; and how they affect on your behavior, etc. and to find a way to have a solution and explanation for this.

Chapter 15 : Behavior Essay

Psychologists work to test and measure your abilities, feelings, attitudes, and behavior. The test psychologist give to people might help them make important decisions in their life or help them improve their way of living. Modern psychologist have been using various type of psychological treatments, Some psychologists test measure behavior directly by means of behavior and rating scales.Some psychologist test measure behavior directly; to do so they use the behavior rating scale. 

For a psychological test to be successful and reasonably accurate it hast to have certain characteristics and a positive behavior. It has to be standardized, meaning it has to show reliability and validity, and it has to have norms for scoring.  They also have the standardized test is one that is administered and scored the same was every time. Another test is the achievement test. This type of test measure people skills and the knowledge they have in specific academic areas. The last test they give is aptitude test. The aptitude test are generally used to determine whether a person is likely to do well in a given field of work or study. Includes standards, guidelines, test for professional use, online tests for self-knowledge, and a glossary of psychological testing terms. Learn more about different psychological tests such as intelligence tests, aptitude tests, and personality tests. 

Read profiles of specific testing instruments such as the MMPI, WISC, Stanford-Binet, and many more. Find information on testing issues such as validity, reliability, and test use. After the aptitude test is given. Psychological have the vocational interest invention; which help people determine whether their interests are similar to those of people in various lines of work. Objective test presents test takes with a standardized group of test items in the form of a questionnaire. In this test they include MMPI and CPI. The projective test have no clearly specific answers. This include the Rorschach ink blot test and the TAT. The Rorschach inkblot test is a type of projective psychological test created in 1921 by Hermann Rorschach. Used to analyze personality and emotional functioning, it is the second most commonly used forensic test after the MMPI. The Rorschach inkblot test at least occasionally .critics note that the test's poor validity means that it is unable to accurately identify most psychological disorders. However, the test has shown to be effective in the diagnosis of illnesses characterized by distorted thinking, such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.

Many psychologists use the test, for many things like measuring an IQ, or to simply find your characteristics and your personality. For taking a test there are tips like gathers information practice, and be test wise. To help you calm your anxiety problems. You can be prepared over learn, and think helpful thoughts. The test psychologist give to people might help them make important decisions in their life or help them improve their way of living.

Psychologists have been helping and testing humanity year and years ago, Gaining knowledge every day of what and why are the we are. This is why the tests are made. This way they will know our abilities, knowledge, feelings, etc. 

Chapter 19 : METHODS OF THERAPY (ESSAY)

What is therapy? Is a verbal interaction between trained professional and patient that needs help to a psychological problem, also known as Psychotherapy; Some of the Psychological therapies even require the use of certain drugs like the Biological Therapy. The whole point of Psychotherapy is to make the think of new perspectives to their problem for them to find a solution, and when people go to a therapy it is because they feel alone and what a Psychologist must do is to be his friend.

Psychologists have several techniques to help their patients. Free association where the analyst asks the client to relax and then to say whatever comes to mind. Resistance is the term psychoanalysts use to refer to a client´s hesitancy or unwillingness to discuss issues raised during free association. The second technique is dream analysis this is when the analyst interprets the content of client´s dreams to unlock these unconscious thoughts and feelings. Transference is when the client is transferring feelings and expectations from one person to another.

Non directive therapy is talking openly of about what ever may be troubling them. Active listening is a widely used communication technique in which the listener repeats, rephrases, and asks for clarification of the statements made by the speaker. Cognitive therapy and behavior therapy are considered together because both methods share the same goal; to help client develop new ways of thinking and behaving. Psycho surgery is a brain surgery that is performed to treat psychological disorders. Psychological and physical problems have multiple ways to be solved. People who care about this problems are interested in helping people cope with this issues. 

Cognitive therapy is to help people learn to think about their problems in more productive ways. Cognitive psychologists focus on their beliefs, attitudes and thought processes that create and compound their clients´ problems. Behavior therapy or behavior modification helps people develop more adaptive behavior. Behaviorists believe that both desirable and undesirable behaviors are largely learned and that people with psychological problems have learned unhealthy ways of behaving.  Aversive conditioning, is the opposite systematic desensitization. Operant conditioning is based on the assumption that behavior that is reinforced tends to repeat, whereas behavior that is not reinforced tends to extinguish. Drug therapy is the most widely used biological treatment for psychological problems. Antianxiety drugs are used as an outpatient treatment to help people with anxiety disorders or panic attacks. Antidepressant drugs are used in the treatment of eating disorders and panic disorder. Antipsychotic drugs are effective for reducing agitation, delusions and hallucinations. 

Therapy will help a person to be happy in life, and to know how to manage all the types of problems there are in life, because life isn’t easy this may cause to a person to do things things that are not right, causing them to be depressed, etc. Therapy will help them overcome all problems possible.

Chapter 17 - STRESS AND HEALTH (ESSAY)

Psychology defines stress as pressure or a force, and the arousal of one´s mind and body. There are two types of stress; Eustress is the one the will increase sharpness and motivation, and can keep people alert and involved(positive stress) and Distress is the negative stress, and involves intense pressure or anxiety that can have severe psychological and physical effects.

The sources of stress; Stressor, which are the events or situations that produces stress, and example can be two people might react to a long bus trip react differently. One might be relaxed and the other might be stress and unpleasant. Frustration is one of the most common sources of stress; Being at a store and really wanting to buy something and not having enough money to do so, this will cause frustration. High school and college students often experience stress that is related to family problems, relationships, pressures at school, loneliness, etc.

Daily Hassles are the everyday frustrations, different forms that will all cause stress. Examples could be: Households hassles, Health hassles, time-pressure hassles, environmental hassles, work hassles future security hassles. Life changes, moving, serious illness or death in a family are other sources of stress, even a new and positive events in a persons life can cause stress. Approach-approach conflict is the least stressful type of conflict because the choices are both positive. Avoidance-avoidance- A choice between two equally unattractive alternatives, Approach avoidance is a choice of weather or not to do something when part of the situations is attractive and often is not. Finally the Multiple approach avoidance, which is a choice between a alternatives that have both good and bad aspects.

Self Efficacy expectation, are the beliefs that people have they can accomplish goals they set for themselves, believing one can do it helps one reach the goal. Wanting to learn to speak another language, basketball, etc.
Psychological Hardiness is a personality characteristic that helps people withstand stress. To conclude Stress is a pressure or force that can cause many problems in life, also it can affect your health in may ways. But it can also be cured in some sort of way, if you set yourself to do it.