Chapter 20: Reflection

In this chapter I learned about attitudes, and they are beliefs and feelings about objects, people, and events that can affect how people behave in certain situations.  There is a process known as cognitive evaluation, which  also plays a role in the development of attitudes and refers to  evaluate evidence and form beliefs on the basic of their evaluations. Also there is something called Prejudice is a generalized attitude toward a specific group of people, and it literally means prejudgment. People who are prejudiced judge people on the basis of their group members rather than as individuals. Later I learned about a scapegoat; which is an individual or group that is blamed for problems of others.

The term scapegoating refers to aggression toward people  which are identified as the target. Attraction is a kind of attitude, an attitude of liking. Attraction to  another person often leads to friendship or live. Physical appearance tends to influence our choice of friends and patterns.  According to the matching hypothesis, people tend to choose as friends and partners those who are similar to themselves in attractiveness.  Friends are people for whom one has affection, respect, and trust. Most people value friends because of the reward that friendship offers. 

This was a very interesting chapter, since I got the opportunity to learn about all this different types of attitudes; and how they affect on your behavior, etc. and to find a way to have a solution and explanation for this.

Chapter 15 : Behavior Essay

Psychologists work to test and measure your abilities, feelings, attitudes, and behavior. The test psychologist give to people might help them make important decisions in their life or help them improve their way of living. Modern psychologist have been using various type of psychological treatments, Some psychologists test measure behavior directly by means of behavior and rating scales.Some psychologist test measure behavior directly; to do so they use the behavior rating scale. 

For a psychological test to be successful and reasonably accurate it hast to have certain characteristics and a positive behavior. It has to be standardized, meaning it has to show reliability and validity, and it has to have norms for scoring.  They also have the standardized test is one that is administered and scored the same was every time. Another test is the achievement test. This type of test measure people skills and the knowledge they have in specific academic areas. The last test they give is aptitude test. The aptitude test are generally used to determine whether a person is likely to do well in a given field of work or study. Includes standards, guidelines, test for professional use, online tests for self-knowledge, and a glossary of psychological testing terms. Learn more about different psychological tests such as intelligence tests, aptitude tests, and personality tests. 

Read profiles of specific testing instruments such as the MMPI, WISC, Stanford-Binet, and many more. Find information on testing issues such as validity, reliability, and test use. After the aptitude test is given. Psychological have the vocational interest invention; which help people determine whether their interests are similar to those of people in various lines of work. Objective test presents test takes with a standardized group of test items in the form of a questionnaire. In this test they include MMPI and CPI. The projective test have no clearly specific answers. This include the Rorschach ink blot test and the TAT. The Rorschach inkblot test is a type of projective psychological test created in 1921 by Hermann Rorschach. Used to analyze personality and emotional functioning, it is the second most commonly used forensic test after the MMPI. The Rorschach inkblot test at least occasionally .critics note that the test's poor validity means that it is unable to accurately identify most psychological disorders. However, the test has shown to be effective in the diagnosis of illnesses characterized by distorted thinking, such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.

Many psychologists use the test, for many things like measuring an IQ, or to simply find your characteristics and your personality. For taking a test there are tips like gathers information practice, and be test wise. To help you calm your anxiety problems. You can be prepared over learn, and think helpful thoughts. The test psychologist give to people might help them make important decisions in their life or help them improve their way of living.

Psychologists have been helping and testing humanity year and years ago, Gaining knowledge every day of what and why are the we are. This is why the tests are made. This way they will know our abilities, knowledge, feelings, etc. 

Chapter 19 : METHODS OF THERAPY (ESSAY)

What is therapy? Is a verbal interaction between trained professional and patient that needs help to a psychological problem, also known as Psychotherapy; Some of the Psychological therapies even require the use of certain drugs like the Biological Therapy. The whole point of Psychotherapy is to make the think of new perspectives to their problem for them to find a solution, and when people go to a therapy it is because they feel alone and what a Psychologist must do is to be his friend.

Psychologists have several techniques to help their patients. Free association where the analyst asks the client to relax and then to say whatever comes to mind. Resistance is the term psychoanalysts use to refer to a client´s hesitancy or unwillingness to discuss issues raised during free association. The second technique is dream analysis this is when the analyst interprets the content of client´s dreams to unlock these unconscious thoughts and feelings. Transference is when the client is transferring feelings and expectations from one person to another.

Non directive therapy is talking openly of about what ever may be troubling them. Active listening is a widely used communication technique in which the listener repeats, rephrases, and asks for clarification of the statements made by the speaker. Cognitive therapy and behavior therapy are considered together because both methods share the same goal; to help client develop new ways of thinking and behaving. Psycho surgery is a brain surgery that is performed to treat psychological disorders. Psychological and physical problems have multiple ways to be solved. People who care about this problems are interested in helping people cope with this issues. 

Cognitive therapy is to help people learn to think about their problems in more productive ways. Cognitive psychologists focus on their beliefs, attitudes and thought processes that create and compound their clients´ problems. Behavior therapy or behavior modification helps people develop more adaptive behavior. Behaviorists believe that both desirable and undesirable behaviors are largely learned and that people with psychological problems have learned unhealthy ways of behaving.  Aversive conditioning, is the opposite systematic desensitization. Operant conditioning is based on the assumption that behavior that is reinforced tends to repeat, whereas behavior that is not reinforced tends to extinguish. Drug therapy is the most widely used biological treatment for psychological problems. Antianxiety drugs are used as an outpatient treatment to help people with anxiety disorders or panic attacks. Antidepressant drugs are used in the treatment of eating disorders and panic disorder. Antipsychotic drugs are effective for reducing agitation, delusions and hallucinations. 

Therapy will help a person to be happy in life, and to know how to manage all the types of problems there are in life, because life isn’t easy this may cause to a person to do things things that are not right, causing them to be depressed, etc. Therapy will help them overcome all problems possible.

Chapter 17 - STRESS AND HEALTH (ESSAY)

Psychology defines stress as pressure or a force, and the arousal of one´s mind and body. There are two types of stress; Eustress is the one the will increase sharpness and motivation, and can keep people alert and involved(positive stress) and Distress is the negative stress, and involves intense pressure or anxiety that can have severe psychological and physical effects.

The sources of stress; Stressor, which are the events or situations that produces stress, and example can be two people might react to a long bus trip react differently. One might be relaxed and the other might be stress and unpleasant. Frustration is one of the most common sources of stress; Being at a store and really wanting to buy something and not having enough money to do so, this will cause frustration. High school and college students often experience stress that is related to family problems, relationships, pressures at school, loneliness, etc.

Daily Hassles are the everyday frustrations, different forms that will all cause stress. Examples could be: Households hassles, Health hassles, time-pressure hassles, environmental hassles, work hassles future security hassles. Life changes, moving, serious illness or death in a family are other sources of stress, even a new and positive events in a persons life can cause stress. Approach-approach conflict is the least stressful type of conflict because the choices are both positive. Avoidance-avoidance- A choice between two equally unattractive alternatives, Approach avoidance is a choice of weather or not to do something when part of the situations is attractive and often is not. Finally the Multiple approach avoidance, which is a choice between a alternatives that have both good and bad aspects.

Self Efficacy expectation, are the beliefs that people have they can accomplish goals they set for themselves, believing one can do it helps one reach the goal. Wanting to learn to speak another language, basketball, etc.
Psychological Hardiness is a personality characteristic that helps people withstand stress. To conclude Stress is a pressure or force that can cause many problems in life, also it can affect your health in may ways. But it can also be cured in some sort of way, if you set yourself to do it.

Chapter: 10,11,12 - Stages of life

During each of the life stages, an individual will require some sort of care need that must be fulfilled. Therefore, care workers provide a specific service depending on the needs of the individual person. Care needs often depend on the age.

Infancy As soon as a child is born, they require 24 hour attention by their carer. Therefore, it requires physical well- being such as being given food, warmth, shelter and sense of safety. This is the key stage when emotional relationships develop; therefore, initial relationships are important to the new born. Childhood Even during childhood, a child is very dependent on the carer for day to day care tasks, although they have gathered some in dependency. They still rely on their parents to provide them with an emotionally secure environment. A child's intellectual needs are met through regular attendance at school. Furthermore, a child's external relationships develop; so to keep a child sociable, social needs must be met.
Adolescence, as soon as a child becomes an adolescent, they are beginning to become more and more independent on mom and that, because they are now becoming what is known as an adult. An  adult is the middle stage of life, where you are now by yourself facing the real problems of life, like paying bills, etc. Then you get to the last stage which is "elder" which is the time people die.

The adolescent growth spurt usually lasts two to three years. Puberty refers to the specific development changes that lead to the ability to reproduce. Characteristics that are directly involved with reproduction are called primary sex characteristics. Other characteristics that are not directly involved in reproduction are called secondary sex characteristics which also develop during puberty.
The production of estrogen, which becomes cyclical in puberty, regulates the menstrual cycle. The first menstrual cycle or menarche is a major life event for most girls and most societies consider it the beginning of womanhood. Cliques are peer groups of 5 to 10 people who spend a great deal of time with one another, sharing activities and confidences. Larger groups of people who do not spent as much time together but share attitudes and group identity are called crowds.
An identity crisis is a turning point in a person’s development when the person examines his or her values and makes or changes decision about life roles.  To avoid an identity crisis, adolescents in the identity foreclosure category make a commitment, but the commitment is based on other people.
In most western societies men have traditionally played the dominant role in marriage, as well as in the larger society.  Although most couples get married because they are in love, about have of the marriages in the United States end in divorce. Divorce can be difficult for children, even when they are almost adults.   Research shows that children of divorced people are more likely to have behavioral problems, engage in substance abuse, and earn lower grades. The midlife-transition, is a period in middle adulthood when people’s perspective change in such a way.

To conclude, The stages of life, are a very powerful topic, there´s alot of explanations of how we start to decompose throghout life span, but there´s also alot of questions; like why do our cells just randomly start to die when we reach certain age? 

Chapter 9: Intelligence

Intelligence is the ability to learn from experience. And from this experience to think rationally and decide what actions you should do. In this Essay it will be explained all types of intelligence a human has. Analytical ability, creativity and street smarts breaks intelligence into analytically intelligence, creative intelligence and practical intelligence. 

Emotional intelligence is the interest in why smart people are not always successful as might be expected. This consists of five factors that are involved in success in school or on the job: self-awareness that is to recognize our own feelings, mood management that is the ability to distract one-self from an uncomfortable feeling, self-motivation that is the ability to move ahead with confidence and enthusiasm, impulse control which is the ability to delay pleasure until the task at hand has been accomplished and people skills that is the ability to empathize, understand, communicate and corporate with others.

There are several intelligence test to try our intelligence. Stanford-Binet scale is one in which Binet assumed that intelligence increased with age. This score was called mental age. Mental ageshows the intellectual level at which a child is funtioning. Wechsler scales are more widely used. Wechsler developed intelligence tests for children and adults. This scale consists in several subtests, each of them measures a different intellectual skill. Reliability refers to its consistancy. Test-retest reliability is determined by comparing scores earned by the same person on the same test taken at different times. Test validity measures what it is supposed to measure. According to the American Association mental retardation is also associated with problems in communication, taking care of oneself, social skills, use of leisure time, travel in the community, self-direction, personal hygiene and vocational training. 

There are several levels of mental retardation: mild retardation with an IQ ranging of 50-70. Most children with mild retardation are more likely to learn how to read and do arithmetic, moderate retardation peoples IQ is 35-49. They can learn how to speak, to feed and dress themselves, to take care of their own hygiene and to work under supportive conditions, severe retardation are people with an IQ  below 20, that barely communicate. They show basic emotion responses, but they cannot feed or dress themselves. Retardations can be cause by accidents that result in brain damage and difficulties during childbirth, Some people where born gifted which means they have an IQ fo 130 or above. To be gifted is to possess outstanding talent or to show the potential for performing at remarkably high levels of accomplishment when compared with othe rpeople of the same age, experience or environment. Creativity is the ability to invent new solutions to problems or to create original or ingenious materials which is linked with giftedness.Intelligence is something that people naturally are born with, this intelligence can be improved through time passes by, doesn´t matter you are you can always improve it, unless you are a genius who was born like this. then that way don´t need to worrie about nothing.

Chapter 8: THINKING

Thinking is the mental activity that is involved in the understanding, processing, and communicating of information. Symbols are an object or an act that stands for something else. Concepts to mentally group together objects, events, or ideas that have similar characteristics. Prototypes is an example of a concept that best exemplifies that concept. 

There are variety of smaller parts to thinking. Algorithms is an specific procedure that, when used properly and in the right circumstances, will always lead to the solution of a problem. An example of algorithms are formulas. Heuristics are rules of thumb that often, but not always, help us find the solution to a problem, meaning that they are shorcuts.  

There are multiple problem solving methods such as trial and error, difference reduction in which we identify our goal, where achieve that goal.Then; Insights and Incubation is making connections that something that might have happened to you and incubation is taking a break after doing a very long problems to see if when your break has ended you have new approaches.Mental set is the tendency to respond to a new problem with an approach that was successfully used with similar problems. Creativity requires divergent thinking rather that convergent thinking. In convergent thinking thought is limited to available facts. One tries to narrow one´s thinking to find the single best solution. The second type of thinking is; Divergent thinking which is when one associates more freely to the various elements of a problem. Some psychologists advise to use the ABDCE of problem solving  which are Assess the problem that means examining its parts and making sure that you understand it, Brainstorm approaches to the problem is the free spontaneous production of possible approaches or solution to a problem, Choose the approach that seems most likely to work after brainstorming the person must choose which approach to take and which course of action to follow, Do it- try most likely approach that is to do the problem, by trying out the approach, Evaluate the results that is to see if the goal was achieved.Reasoning is the use of information to reach conclusions. There are two main types of reasoning: deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning.Deductive reasoning when the conclusion is true if the premises are true. A premise is an idea or statement that provides the basic information that allows us to draw conclusions, an example of deductive reasoning is that South Korea is in Asia. Inductive reasoning on the other hand, we reason from individual cases or particular facts to reach a general conclusion.

The basic elements of language are phonemes, morphemes, syntax  and semantics. Phonemes are basic sounds of a language. Morphemes are the units of meaning in a language. This are made of phonemes. Syntax is the way in which words are arranged to make phrases and sentences. English syntax usually follows the pattern of subject, verb, and object of the verb. Semantics is the study of meaning. There are stages of language development. Crying, cooing and babbling is the first stage. After this comes wording when we start true language. Then development of grammar. learning language by hereditary influences meaning that people have a natural tendency to acquire language and environmental influences that are teachings that come from our surroundings.

To conclude, Thinking is a very interesting and complex part of humas. It has a variety of different elements that explains it detailed, like divergent and convergent thinking. Also language is the basic path used to communicate to each other.